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A research team headed up at Linköping University in Sweden and Cornell University in the US has succeeded in recycling almost all of the components of perovskite solar cells using simple, non-toxic, water-based solvents. What’s more, the researchers were able to use the recycled components to make new perovskite solar cells with almost the same power conversion efficiency as those created from new materials. This work could pave the way to a sustainable perovskite solar economy, they say.
While solar energy is considered an environmentally friendly source of energy, most of the solar panels available today are based on silicon, which is difficult to recycle. This has led to the first generation of silicon solar panels, which are reaching the end of their life cycles, ending up in landfills, says Xun Xiao, one of the team members at Linköping University.
When developing emerging solar cell technologies, we therefore need to take recycling into consideration, adds one of the leaders of the new study, Feng Gao, also at Linköping. “If we don’t know how to recycle them, maybe we shouldn’t put them on the market at all.”
To this end, many countries around the world are imposing legal requirements on photovoltaic manufacturers, to ensure that they collect and recycle any solar cell waste they produce. These initiatives include the WEEE directive 2012/19/EU in the European Union and equivalent legislation in Asia and the US.
Perovskites are one of the most promising materials for making next-generation solar cells. Not only are they relatively inexpensive, they are also easy to fabricate, lightweight, flexible and transparent. This allows them to be placed on top of a variety of surfaces, unlike their silicon counterparts. And since they boast a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of more than 25%, this makes them comparable to existing photovoltaics on the market.
A shorter lifespan
One of their downsides, however, is that perovskite solar cells have a shorter lifespan than silicon solar cells. This means that recycling is even more critical for these materials. Today, perovskite solar cells are disassembled using dangerous solvents such as dimethylformamide, but Gao and colleagues have now developed a technique in which water can be used as the solvent.
Perovskites are crystalline materials with an ABX3 structure, where A is caesium, methylammonium (MA) or formamidinium (FA); B is lead or tin; and X is chlorine, bromine or iodine. Solar cells made of these materials are composed of different layers: the hole/electron transport layers; the perovskite layer; indium tin oxide substrates; and cover glasses.
In their work, which they detail in Nature, the researchers succeeded in delaminating end-of-life devices layer by layer, using water containing three low-cost additives: sodium acetate, sodium iodide and hypophosphorous acid. Despite being able to dissolve organic iodide salts such as methylammonium iodide and formamidinium iodide, water only marginally dissolves lead iodide (about 0.044 g per 100 ml at 20 °C). The researchers therefore developed a way to increase the amount of lead iodide that dissolves in water by introducing acetate ions into the mix. These ions readily coordinate with lead ions, forming highly soluble lead acetate (about 44.31 g per 100 ml at 20 °C).
Once the degraded perovskites had dissolved in the aqueous solution, the researchers set about recovering pure and high-quality perovskite crystals from the solution. They did this by providing extra iodide ions to coordinate with lead. This resulted in [PbI]+ transitioning to [PbI2]0 and eventually to [PbI3]− and the formation of the perovskite framework.
To remove the indium tin oxide substrates, the researchers sonicated these layers in a solution of water/ethanol (50%/50% volume ratio) for 15 min. Finally, they delaminated the cover glasses by placing the degraded solar cells on a hotplate preheated to 150 °C for 3 min.
They were able to apply their technology to recycle both MAPbI3 and FAPbI3 perovskites.
New devices made from the recycled perovskites had an average power conversion efficiency of 21.9 ± 1.1%, with the best samples clocking in at 23.4%. This represents an efficiency recovery of more than 99% compared with those prepared using fresh materials (which have a PCE of 22.1 ± 0.9%).
Looking forward, Gao and colleagues say they would now like to demonstrate that their technique works on a larger scale. “Our life-cycle assessment and techno-economic analysis has already confirmed that our strategy not only preserves raw materials, but also appreciably lowers overall manufacturing costs of solar cells made from perovskites,” says co-team leader Fengqi You, who works at Cornell University. “In particular, reclaiming the valuable layers in these devices drives down expenses and helps reduce the ‘levelized cost’ of electricity they produce, making the technology potentially more competitive and sustainable at scale,” he tells Physics World.
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Quantum technologies are flourishing the world over, with advances across the board researching practical applications such as quantum computing, communication, cryptography and sensors. Indeed, the quantum industry is booming – an estimated $42bn was invested in the sector in 2023, and this amount is projected to rise to $106bn by 2040.
With academia, industry and government all looking for professionals to join the future quantum workforce, it’s crucial to have people with the right skills, and from all educational levels. With this in mind, efforts are being made across the US to focus on quantum education and training, with educators working to introduce quantum concepts from the elementary-school level, all the way to tailored programmes at PhD and postgraduate level that meet the needs of potential employers in the area. Efforts are being made to ensure that graduates and early-career physicists are aware of the many roles available in the quantum sphere.
“There are a lot of layers to what has to be done in quantum education,” says Emily Edwards, an electrical and computer engineer at Duke University and co-leader of the National Q-12 Education Partnership. “I like to think of quantum education along different dimensions. One way is to think about what most learners may need in terms of foundational public literacy or student literacy in the space. Towards the top, we have people who are very specialized. Essentially, we have to think about many different learners at different stages – they might need specific tools or might need different barriers removed for them. And so different parts of the economy – from government to industry to academia and professional institutions – will play a role in how to address the needs of a certain group.”
Engaging young minds
To ensure that the US remains a key global player in quantum information science and technology (QIST), the National Q-12 Education Partnership – launched by the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy and the National Science Foundation (NSF) – is focused on ways to engage young minds in quantum, building the necessary tools and strategies to help improve early (K-12) education and outreach.
To achieve this, Q-12 is looking at outreach and education in middle and high school by introducing QIST concepts and providing access to learning materials and to inspire the next generation of quantum leaders. Over the next decade, Q-12 also aims to provide quantum-related curricula – developed by professionals in the field – beyond university labs and classrooms, to community colleges and online courses.
Edwards explains that while Q-12 mainly focuses on the K-12 level, there is also an overlap with early undergraduate, two-year colleges– meaning that there is a wide range of requirements, issues and unique challenges to contend with. Such a big space also means that different companies and institutions have varying levels of funding and interests in quantum education research and development.
“Academic organizations, for example, tend to work on educational research or to provide professional development, especially because it’s nascent,” says Edwards. “There is a lot of the activity in the academic space, within professional societies. We also work with a number of private companies, some of which are developing curricula, or providing free access to different tools and simulations for learning experiences.”
The role of the APS
The American Physical Society (APS) is strongly involved in quantum education – by making sure that teachers have access to tools and resources for quantum education as well as connecting quantum professionals with K-12 classrooms to discuss careers in quantum. “The APS has been really active in engaging with teachers and connecting them with the vast network of APS members, stakeholders and professionals, to talk about careers,” says Edwards. APS and Q-12 have a number of initiatives – such as Quantum To-Go and QuanTime – that help connect quantum professionals with classrooms and provide teachers with ready-to-use quantum activities.
Role model The Quantum To-Go programme matches scientists, engineers and professionals in quantum information science andt technology with classrooms across the US to inspire students to enter the quantum workforce. (Courtesy: APS)
Claudia Fracchiolla, who is the APS’s head of public engagement, points out that while there is growing interest in quantum education, there is a lack of explicit support for high-school teachers who need to be having conversations about a possible career in quantum with students that will soon be choosing a major.
“We know from our research that while teachers might want to engage in this professional development, they don’t always have the necessary support from their institution and it is not regulated,” explains Fracchiolla. She adds that while there are a “few stellar people in the field who are creating materials for teachers”, there is not a clear standard on how they can be used, or what can be taught at a school level.
Quantum To-Go
To help tackle these issues, the APS and Q-12 launched the Quantum To-Go programme, which pairs educators with quantum-science professionals, who speak to students about quantum concepts and careers. The programme covers students from the first year of school through to undergraduate level, with scientists visiting in person or virtually.
It’s a really great way for quantum professionals in different sectors to visit classrooms and talk about their experiences
Emily Edwards
“I think it’s a really great way for quantum professionals in different sectors to visit classrooms and talk about their experiences,” says Edwards. She adds that this kind of collaboration can be especially useful “because we know that students– particularly young women, or students of colour or those from any marginalized background – self-select out of these areas while they’re still in the K-12 environment.”
Edwards puts this down to a lack of role models in the workplace. “Not only do they not hear about quantum in the classroom or in their curriculum, but they also can’t see themselves working in the field,” she says. “So there’s no hope of achieving a diverse workforce if you don’t connect a diverse set of professionals with the classroom. So we are really proud to be a part of Quantum To-Go.”
Quantum resources
With 2025 being celebrated as the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology (IYQ), both Q-12 and the APS hope to see and host many community-driven activities and events focused on young learners and their families. An example of this is Q-12’s QuanTime initiative, which seeks to help teachers curate informal quantum activities across the US all year round. “Education is local in the US, and so it’s most successful if we can work with locals to help develop their own community resources,” explains Edwards.
A key event in the APS’s annual calendar of activities celebrating IYQ is the Quantum Education and Policy Summit, held in partnership with the Q-SEnSE institute. It aims to bring together key experts in physics education, policymakers and quantum industry leaders, to develop quantum educational resources and policies.
Quantum influencers Testifying before the US House Science Committee on 7 June 2023 were (from left to right) National Quantum Coordination Office director Charles Tahan, former Department of Education under secretary for science Paul Dabbar, NASA quantum scientist Eleanor Rieffel, Quantum Economic Development Consortium executive director Celia Merzbacher, and University of Illinois quantum scientist Emily Edwards (now at Duke University). (Courtesy: House Science Committee)
Another popular resource produced by the APS is its PhysicsQuest kits, which are aimed at middle-school students to help them explore specific physics topics. “We engaged with different APS members who work in quantum to design activities for middle-school students,”says Fracchiolla. “We then worked with some teachers to pilot and test those activities, before finalizing our kits, which are freely available to teachers. Normally, each year we do four activities, but thanks to IYQ, we decided to double that to eight activities that are all related to topics in quantum science and technology.”
To help distribute these kits to teachers, as well as provide them with guidance on how to use all the included materials, the APS is hosting workshops for teachers during the Teachers’ Days at the APS Global Physics Summit in March 2025. Workshops will also be held at the APS Division of Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics (DAMOP) annual meeting in June.
“A key part of IYQ is creating an awareness of what quantum science and technology entails, because it is also about the people that work in the field,” says Fracchiolla. “Something that was really important when we were writing the proposal to send to the UN for the IYQ was to demonstrate how quantum technologies will supports the UN’s sustainable development goals. I hope this also inspires students to pursue careers in quantum, as they realize that it goes beyond quantum computing.”
If we are focusing on quantum technologies to address sustainable development goals, we need to make sure that they are accessible to everyone
Claudia Fracchiolla
Fracchiolla also underlines that having a diverse range of people in the quantum workforce will ensure that these technologies will help to tackle societal and environmental issues, and vice versa. “If we are focusing on quantum technologies to address sustainable development goals, we need to make sure that they are accessible to everyone. And that’s not going to happen if diverse minds are not involved in the process of developing these technologies,” she says, while acknowledging that this is currently not the case.
It is Fracchiolla’s ultimate hope that the IYQ and the APS’s activities taken together will help all students feel empowered that there is a place for them in the field. “Quantum is still a nascent field and we have the opportunity to not repeat the errors of the past, that have made many areas of science exclusive. We need to make the field diverse from the get go.”
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